Children and Young People’s Development Essay Example for Free

Children and Young Peoples Development EssayA sister cultivation is influenced in many ways such as their background, health and environment. These figures will have an impact on the boors different areas of development. mountChildren perplex from all different family environments, cultures and circumstances. Children go through signifi loafert family changes such as a family break-up or a new step-family. These can disturb a childs emotional and intellectual development. A child may also change their behaviour, which means there ability to learn is decreased. This can equal their emotional development because they may feel like it is their fault for the break up. Having a new step-family is a big change for some children, this may affect their emotional development, as they may feel as if there mother/father is replacing each other. The child may also have problem bonding with their new family. Some children may be deliberately hostile towards a step-parent as they may feel it is the only outlet for their feelings, and those who do not express their feelings openly may become withdrawn. This can have major effects on their intellectual development, as they may become withdrawn at school and unable to concentrate on learning.Read more Explain how children and young peoples development is influenced by a range of personal factors essay advent from a low income family may have a significant effect on a childs development. Burnham and Baker state Statistic show that children who come from deprived backgrounds are less probable to thrive and achieve well in school. Coming from a low income family may affect a childs intellectual development, as the family may not be able to afford to pay for extra activities such as swimming lessons or dance lessons. This could also have an impact on the childs physical development. This may affect the way a child is able to answer in certain situations. There communicational development may be affected as they may not have interacted with children their own age before. ethnic differences may also impact a child development, as they may feel isolated at school.This would affect there communication and intellectual development, as they may be unable to communicate with other children. They my also feel excluded because they are brought up different, this can affect their emotional development. Not interacting with other peers can have a large impact on different types of development, such as emotional as they can feel isolated and excluded. Childrens with different cultural beliefs or practice may cause emotional conflict. Such as if they want to participate in an activity which goes against their families wishes or religious beliefs, they would feel excluded. different issues would be if the child has moved countries their intellectual development may be affected due to the fact that they have to catch up with new languages and cultures.wellnessIf a child suffers from poor health or impairm ent, this may have an effect on their development. If a child suffers from a medical condition this may lessen their ability to participate in activities than other children. This will affect their physical development, as well as their emotional development. Depending how aware the child is around their needs, they may feel excluded and isolated from other children. Other health factors maybe that the child was born premature, as they are more likely to develop lazy than a healthy born child. There may be an effect on their physical development, as they are a smaller and behind on developing. This may also have an in pact on their intellectual development, as it has been shown that premature babies struggle with maths. Burdo-Hartman says. Memorizing math facts in particular has been shown to be nasty for some preemies,EnvironmentA childs environment, for example, family or school, plays a huge part in their development. A family that abuses or neglects a child will damage the ch ilds natural development. The indifferent family style has a negative effect on the child. The child may not have much opportunity, they may salutary watch television or play video games all day, will not gain the experiences and interactions needed to further their development. Where a child lives is an important factor for their development. If they live in poor areas, there are less services and opportunities. This can have a negative effect on their intellectual development as they are not able to access services such as playgroups or afterschool clubs. On the other hand, wealthy areas are more likely to have better services and opportunities, this means that a childs development may not be affected.Burnham, L. Baker, B. (2010). Support Teaching and Learning in schools. Essex Heinemann Learning.

Political Elite Revised Essay Example for Free

Political Elite Revised EssayDo you want to belong to the elect(ip)? Or do you sometimes feel that, in a way, you belong to the elite? Without its political meaning, the elite simply refer to a radical that possesses select qualities than the rest. It is the cream of the crop. In one way or another, some of us whitethorn cave in already experienced belonging to the elite, such as when we became part of an important club in school or belonged to the top of the class. In the book Concept and Issues in Comparative Politics, Frank Wilson explained that when applied to politics, the end point elite acquires a negative connotation to mean a small group who conspire to monopolize power and use it for their benefit. However, without this political meaning, depot elite refers to those who atomic number 18 active in political processes.Thus, Wilson stresses that not only the politicians belong to the elite, notwithstanding also the opinion leaders and influence wielders and the seni or urbane servants. While politicians seek and hold elective or appointed government positions, influential figures participate in the process by shaping the ideas and preferences of others. This makes the media and business group as parts of the political elite. Bureaucrats or senior civil servants are also one of the components of the elite because they are involved in the policy- and decision-making processes in the government. poop a person enter the circle of the elite by moving his or her way up in the bureaucracy? Yes, if the persons career achievements merit him or her to be recruited into the elite. Basically Wilson suggests two ways of recruitment to the elite by achievement and by ascription. Recruitment by achievement does not only refer to technical skills, but also pertains to interpersonal, leadership or money-making skills. This is in stark contrast with the ascriptive mode of recruitment wherein a person mechanically becomes a member of the elite because he or she was born with silver spoon in the mouth, so to speak.Also, Wilson points out that recruitment by achievement is peculiarity of developed political systems, while recruitment by ascription is much common in traditional societies. However, it is not uncommon to find elites by fork out who also developed the necessary skills to lead by achievement. For example, George W. Bush did not become the US President simply because he is the son of George H. W. Bush but his first-hand observation of his fathers former job, the Bushs network of influence, and the name recall surely helped in his campaign.Wilson also classifies elites into circularize and unsympathetic elites. The US is considered as one of the most open political recruitment processes because of the system of primary elections. One does not have to be a dedicated company worker to tucker out nominated and eventually elected. According to Wilson, it also explains why movie stars could become elected officials, as well. Most popular societies have open elites hence outsiders have multiple opportunities to enter the elite circle but there are also democratic societies which require aspiring politicians to serve apprenticeships in local or party politics. This is to prevent just anybody, especially those who are only famous, to defecate elected without any political experience. On the other hand, closed elites are characteristic of authoritarian regimes wherein membership to the elite is controlled. In practice, however, there are also democratic regimes which also have closed elites, in a sense that ruling elites may hinder other members of the society from obtaining enough political leverage to become one of the political elite. For instance, I want to get in the elite circle because I have sufficient background, knowledge and skills to become a leader, but the circle is controlled and very elitist (snobbish). Do I have other options if I do not get recruited through achievement? Yes, by ascription su ch as by marrying a member of the elite, as Wilson stresses, or stage a revolt or a coup detat to overthrow the ruling elite. Nevertheless, violent successions of the elites usually happen when there is no predictability or long-established rules in the change of leadership. In most advanced political systems, there are approved procedures in the transition and legitimation of leadership that would give back the blood spill unnecessary.However, even if Wilson contends that unpredictable successions are common to authoritarian regimes and third world countries, he also cites examples to the contrary. He takes particular exception to the companionship politics in China which has proven that orderly manner of succession is possible, even in an authoritarian system. To add to this example are a military issue of illiberal democracies in Asia wherein rulers could maintain their hold in power, yet such undemocratic rule were long accepted by the people. Wilson also adds that there are other ways to make the elites hold on power legitimate such as tradition, charismatic appeal, accepted rational processes, and more importantly, capability of the political elite to deliver its promises to the people. The capability to perform to improve the welfare of the people could be a more powerful factor for genuineness than election, and frankincense could make peoples obedience possible even if the rule is considered undemocratic. However, whether in democratic or authoritarian regimes, any elite that would get along coercive force to command obedience from the people is bound to fail and that is when we observe violent or tense transitions of political power. Still, there is always a certain elite or a small group that would be most directly involved in the political processes. Even erstwhile socialist regimes which claimed to promote equality among the people have been ruled by elites, and have in fact used their position to perpetuate themselves in power. The widely- held notion of republic is that of a representative democracy. As such, it has been a nagging controversy in the studies of elite that even the most democratic systems are not truly democratic because political leadership is in the hands of a representative elite that would never mirror the general citizenry.Wilson has provided enough empirical evidence that those who usually get recruited into the elite are from the middle and upper classes, educated, from dominant societal groups, and male. Even if the elite would recruit from the ranks of the masses, those who would enter the elite would soon acquire the certain determine and perspectives that are characteristic of the elite. Thus they get absorbed into the system and could not possibly reform the system. As such radicals view that only by ever-changing the system itself, say, by supplanting a genuinely socialist one, that political elitism would end.The above proposition is grounded on the self-assertion that elitism is fre ehanded, as Wilson has scrutinized effectively. Breaking down this assumption brings us to the sub-assumptions that firstly, political elites always rules in its own best interests and that secondly, the best political representation of a particular group is made by people who are from that group. Wilson debunks these assumptions for lack of sufficient empirical evidence.In the first instance, political elites ruling only on their interests can always be checked in democratic societies. In democratic systems wherein the succession of political power is determined by elections, the ruling elites would have to bend to the wishes of important portions of the population because they would ultimately lease their support come election time. Of course, it is also possible that the political elite sincerely care for the people that is why we now have welfare states and taxation systems that really hurt the rich and benefit the poor.The argument that one can best represent the interests th e group where he or she comes from, at all times, may not always hold true since as Wilson explained in the text, new entrants to the elite may change their values by virtue of their position thus may render them useless in advancing his original group or class. A very concrete example would be the socialist Russian revolution which catapulted the working class into power, which in the long run only became a self-seeking and self-defensive class of its own. Thus Wilson argues that a pluralist democracy, wherein various interests are supply and political competition prevents domination of political power of a single set of elites, holds the answer to the controversy that bedevils the political elite. As such, the rule of the elites, per se, is not bad as long as it is in the context of a working pluralist democracy.

The Disability Representation In The Media

The deterioration Re proveation In The MediaMy face-to-face reasons for choosing this dissertation take stem from an interest in how media representations shape the attitudes of wider society. I tactile sensation it is all- measurable(prenominal) to none that I am writing as a non- disable student with the view that deadening studies and research should not respectable be the interests of disenable pack. Issues of inequality and social injustice need to be considered by all members of society, while ensuring that the views, definitions and experiences of the particular group remain central to the discussion. It has been make app arnt that the voices of change bulk drive home been absent from discussion beca commit of the assumption that they need others to speak them and decide on their needs (Barton, 1993). Dominant views of stultification dictate that it is a someoneal problem of the psyche, ground on biological impairment. However, I strongly advocate a social mo del of baulk which emphasises that oppression and discrimination by society is the ca do of experiences of stultification. I plan to make this my main approach in writing my dissertation. Barton (1996, pg. 5) describes disability studies indoors the field of Sociology as an emancipatory project and argues that the fundamental chief we must ask ourselves is whether the sociological imagination contributes to the benefit of handicapped mountain (original emphasis) I believe that any research which aims to illuminate the prejudices implicit in ethnic representations of disability, be necessary pursuits and it is vital to seriously consider the reasoning behind research projects as well as the ultimate impact they are aimed to prepare on particular groups.There has been many publications regarding disability and media representation in recent times which highlights that disability, impairment and change muckle are being oft misrepresented in the mass media. Research has in like manner suggested that such(prenominal) media representations stomach an alarming affect on the attitudes of the public. This discharge can be divided into trinity key areas, the use of disability stereotypes, the use of specific language and images of disability and the under-representation of wad with impairments tameing deep down the mass media. Pressures from disabled activists and legislation such as the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) 2005 have brought this issue onto the agenda and worked to improve the rights of disabled people. An increasing awareness of the issues has resulted. However, the extent of this awareness is debatable as thither is still much work to be done in tackling the negative and disempowering portrayals within the media and the current views of society. It is clear that the media has not made sufficient changes and therefore this issue remains extremely relevant. My aim is to explore the representations of disabled people to see whether an y changes have been made.1.3.3 Can Disability be represented positively?It is full to say that the majority of media depictions of Disability and impairment are incorrect and exclude people with impairments from participation within media production. During my search for literature on the issue of disability and the media, I prove that a substantial amount of studies were very critical of the media and focus only on negative stereotypical portrayals with an inclusion of recommendations for their demise. An example which I plan to use in my literature review chapter is Barnes (1992) disabling imagery and the media which ambitiously attempts to deal with all aspects of the media in misrepresenting disability. Despite such an extensive accumulation of studies in this area, there is very little literature which focuses on the representation of disability by disabled people themselves. It could be argued that there are not enough media sources which involve disabled people of which t o analyse. However very recently I am pleasantly surprised to see that there are a few emerging. Notable examples include the Channel 4 mockumentary Cast Offs in which six voices with contrasting impairments live together on an island. The show highlights many disability issues and challenges stereotypes of disability. Themes include sexuality, disabled identity and the exclusion of disabled actors and actresses from television (Wilde, 2009). Other media sources which feature disabled people include, Britains Missing Top Model and Dancing on Wheels. Although this is a step in the right direction, the inclusion of case-by-cases with impairments on TV has been restricted mainly to reality TV which offers little insight into the lives of disabled people instead they are centred on strength and achievement notwithstanding the single(a)s impairment rather than a celebration of disabled identities. The new American musical period of play Glee has considered disability issues within its plot lines, this included the use of wheel chairs during a per cast of charactersance in order to educate the able-bodied per material bodyers on the enormousness of considering the needs of wheel chair user Artie and the difficulty in getting around the high school from his perspective because of the lack of ramps and accessible doors. Unfortunately however, the character of Artie is played by a non-wheel chair user and so any positive aspects of disability representation in the show are practically reverse by the exclusion of disabled actors and actresses from participating.1.3.4 The Sun and OuchI wanted to choose two online sources for my study which were imposing in terms of disability representation and portrayal. plane newspapers are notorious for depicting various groups inaccurately and producing sensationalised media in order to sell newspapers. The Sun is a daily tabloid newspaper which is among the highest in circulation in the world (The Newspaper Marketing Agency , 2010). The use of disablist language is common in tabloid newspapers and often in the broadsheets too. Reports regularly provide distorted representations of the experience of disability and focus on stereotypical assumptions (Barnes, 1991). This topic exit be expanded further in chapter three. I chose The Sun because of its popularity in the UK and because tabloid news is a major source of information for the general public, I will be using articles from The Sun online website. After selecting a tabloid source for my study I began searching for an online source which involved the self-representation of disabled people, I dismissed many websites because they were charity based, political in nature, or entirely provided information and advice for disabled people without necessarily being based on the views and experiences of this group. Examples of websites I considered include Radar and Disability Now. I chose Ouch because it is not centred on disability politics and aims to ref lect the lives and experiences of disabled people (See Ouch 2010, http//www.bbc.co.uk/ouch/ almost.shtml). The website consists of articles, blogs, podcasts as well as other features. The writers and contributors are not interested with political correctness but seek to offer insights into the topics that are important to disabled people and those with a stakehold in disability such as family and friends. To ensure that representations and portrayals of disability are fit, the Ouch team are disabled themselves. My first impressions of the website and its substance were that it is very humour based and does not take itself too seriously. It is friendly, accessible and taps into the ordinary, everyday experiences of disability. This is wherefore I decided it would be a suitable source for comparison with a more mainstream media source.1.4 Structuring my DissertationMy dissertation will consist of six key sections. The first is my cosmos which will outline the topic of study, along with my reasons for choosing it and my aims. Chapter two will historicise disability using the work of Barnes (1991, 1996, and 1997). Chapter three will discuss the existing literature which relates to my topic, this will include studies of media representation and disability, a discussion of the political models of disability and the key terms involved in the debate. In chapter four I will discuss my methods of research, including how I selected my sources and an examination of the strengths and weaknesses of my chosen method of content analysis. I will also consider any ethical implications of the study in this chapter. Chapter five will be my most important section, in this I will present and discuss my findings. The final chapter (chapter six) will be focused on my concluding the study. It will relate my findings to the objectives presented in the introduction and the issues raised in my literature review. It will also include a reflection of my chosen methodology and a summar y of the dissertation.2.0 The History of DisabilityIn order to understand the representations and societal perceptions of disability today, it is necessary to study a history of Disability. The attitudes and practices of the past have a vital influence on present day beliefs. Barnes (1997) argues that the lives of disenable people in history have been all overlooked in favour of an emphasis on medical perspectives and it is clear that many disabled people experience exclusion from mainstream society. This is evident in such areas as employment, in which 45% of disabled people of working age are excluded from. It has been found also that disabled people tend to have lower earnings, with disabled men earning on average 1.50 less per hour than non-disabled men (Hyde, 2001). As a result, many disabled people live in poverty or are at risk of poverty. Discrimination can also be seen within the education system welfare, housing, leisure and environment and planning.The evidence that di sabled people experience sever economic deprivation and social disadvantage is overwhelming and no longer in dispute, whether it be from the governments own commissioned research, from research institutes and academics or from disabled people themselves. (Oliver, 2003, pg. 312).Historically, people with impairments have long been oppressed and marginalised. Hostile treatment, ignominy and ignorance are common disabling experiences. Barnes (1997 and 1991) claims that perceptions of disability are rooted in ancient Greek and Roman history, he discusses how the grows of the western world are based on the achievements of the ancient Greeks who built their existence on slavery. Greek society was extremely violent, male dominated and prone to war. They had a strong value for perceptible and mental strength and any weaknesses and flaws were not tolerated. Such a concern for ameliorateion meant that the infanticide of sick and disabled children was very common. In Greek philosophy, the gods and goddesses were idealised representations of perfect humanity (Dutton cited in Barnes, 1997, pg 13). The only god who was physically imperfect was Hephaestus, this Greek God was rejected by his parents because of his grotesque appearance and labelled a cripple by his wife Aphrodite who committed adultery with a more aesthetically pleasing lover. This mythology is significant as it is a clear source of the links made betwixt impairment and sexuality today as many of us assume that disabled people are unable or do not want to have a sex life. When the Romans conquered Greece and expanded their empire, the values of strength, individualism and able-bodiedness were inherited with it. The Romans also advocated the infanticide of weak children and ridiculed people who acquired impairment during their life course. Many Roman games involved using individuals with impairment as comedy acts for the amusement of others. Although some(prenominal) the Greeks and Romans attempted to d evelop treatments for impairments, they were reserved mainly for those with power and wealth (Garland, 1995).Another tooshie of our thoughts and beliefs of disability can be found in the western religions of Christianity and Judaism. Religion in ancient societies viewed disability as anti-religious and a reflection of sin or immoral behaviour. Barnes cites many references from religious texts which imply that impairment is a consequence of bad behaviour. For example, in Deuteronomy (27-27) it states that immorality will be punished by blindness. In contrast to Greek and roman society, the Jewish faith opposed infanticide and encouraged its members to care for the less fortunate this is also a feature of subsequent religions stemming from the Judaism, such as Islam and Christianity. People with impairments were accepted by the federation, but as objects of neediness and charity. This was a key feature of Christianity. Consequently, they were viewed only in terms of their impairment and treated as incomplete human beings in need of sympathy (Barnes, 1997).During the Middle Ages disability was associated with evil and tiptopstition and people with impairments were treated with extreme hostility. Children born with impairments were believed to of been sent by the devil as a result of parents involvement in witchcraft and other black arts. This association with evil was very strongly held in Britain during this time and was reflected in art and literature, Shakespeares Richard III is a good illustration of this, Richard is portrayed as physically and mentally deformed despite having no physical impairment. He is destined to only be successful as a villain which perpetuates the negative stereotype of impairment and evil. Just as in the ancient world, disabled people were ridiculed during the middle ages in many forms. Analyses of joke books from this time reveal that impairments such as insanity and idiocy were used as sources of humour. Many individuals with vis ible impairments were displayed as objects of entertainment (Barnes, 1997).The 18th and 19th century saw the transition from agri heathen subsistence to factory production during the industrial revolution and urbanisation process. This brought with it a mitigate in religious authority and the growth of science and rationality. The development of utilitarian philosophy which emphasised the importance of pleasing the majority at the expense of nonage groups created a new found value for individuality and progress. These developments provided justification for the beliefs and practices of the past and can be cited as a starting orientate for the disability issues which are visible today. These include the development and prioritisation of a medical model of Disability, in which the body and impairment are viewed in individualistic terms rather than social, cultural and political. The institutional prejudice and discrimination of people with impairments in everyday social life is a se cond issue of Disability theorists. The popularity of eugenic ideas during the mid twentieth century and the murder of thousands of disabled people, as well as other oppressed minority groups during the second world war is another significant point in modern history and many scientists still advocate neighborly Darwinist ideals and view human imperfections (both physical and mental) as a societal affright, a threat that needs to be eradicated (Barnes, 1996).The rise of the disability movement in the 1960s saw the development of the Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS), the establishment of such organisations and the activism of disabled people resulted in a re-classification of disability as distinct from impairment and social in nature as opposed to medical (Barnes, 1997). Disability became defined as the disadvantages caused by social institutions and environments which effectively exclude people from participation (UPIAS, 1976). This was later adapted by other organisations such as the British Council of disenable People (BCODP) and the Disabled Peoples International (DPI) (Barnes, 1997). Eventually, this new understanding of disability became known as the Social Model of Disability (Oliver, 1996a). Disability opening will be discussed further in my literature review (Chapter 3) with an analysis of both the medical and social models of Disability.3.0 Literature Review3.1 Introduction3.2 Disability and Impairment linchpin terms in the debateDisability is difficult to conceptualise because of its multi-dimensional and complex nature. The term can be used in many different contexts and from different perspectives which means there is little consensus on its definition (Altman, 2001). Classifications associated with a medical model of disability are based on a distinction between impairment disability and handicap impairment is defined as functional limitations to do with the body, disability is when an individual cannot function no rmally because if this impairment, and handicap refers to an inability to act in social life (Oliver, 1990). The main problem with such classifications is that the individual impairment is considered to be the most important factor and reinforces an individual definition in which functional limitations predominate. Thus, disability is viewed in terms of an individuals personal inability to function (Barton, 1993 pg. 237). This model has had a powerful influence in shaping not just social policy, but societal attitudes and behavior.In reality, many disabled people have rejected this understanding of disability. Instead disability refers to failures in the structural environment to meet the needs of all individuals. The Disabled Peoples International (1981) put forward the following definition which better fits the views of disabled people.Impairment is the functional limitation within the individual caused by physical, mental or sensory impairment.Disability is the loss or limitatio n of opportunities to take part in the normal life of the community on an equal level with others due to physical and social barriers.In relation to my content analysis research, I will be looking to aim how disability is conceptualised and the type of language used both in The Sun and Ouch3.3 The Language of DisabilityThe first and most important thing to remember about discussions of language and disability is that they arise because disabled people experience discrimination daily and are denied the same rights and opportunities as the rest of the population. Apart from the fact that delivery can be deeply hurtful to disabled individuals, they have power and are used extensively to justify oppression (Barnes, 1993, pg 8).The power of language is a significant topic of discussion in the area of disability studies. While we assume that the primary purpose of language is to aid communication, Oliver (1994, pg. 4) argues that it is also about politics, command and control and I am inclined to agree. The development of language is not based on consensus of meaning but rather through the ability of few groups to force their meaning and understanding of others. This form of cultural domination is visible in many forms, the imposition of the spoken word on deaf people and sexist language directed at women are both suitable examples (Oliver, 1989, pg.1). The misconceptions that society has of disability are caused as well reinforced by the use of disablist language. Many of the abusive terms directed at disabled people are well circulated and familiar to most of the population. moron cripple spastic moron mong dwarf midget lunatic the list is endless (Clark and Marsh, 2002). This kind of terminology has the power to promote prejudice and discrimination against disabled people. As mentioned in the preceding section (3.2) the DPI re-defined impairment and disability in line with the reality that disability is rooted in social injustice. This means that the langua ge used by both the media and wider society ought to reflect a social model of disability in which society discriminates against those who do not conform to the ideals of an able-bodied society. Disablist language such as the disabled or people with disabilities are unacceptable yet commonly used by the press and the population generally. Individuals do not have disabilities, they have impairments. Phrases such as the disabled objectify the individual and impose a particular label on their identity which is based solely on their impairment. Disabled people as opposed to people with disabilities is more appropriate as it implies that the disability belongs to society, whereas the latter makes it the property of the person (Barnes, 1991 and 1992). Within the British press, the aforementioned terms, oddly cripple and handicap are used regularly. This is usually within a sentimental and patronising context. For example stories in which disabled individuals display bravery despite of th eir disability or handicap or instances where individuals have made personal scarifies to help a disabled individual or group. These generally involve the use of emotive language, such as wheelchair bound afflicted sufferer victim and so on (Barnes, 1991).To summarise, much of the language that is used in discussions of disability are based on an individualistic/medical understanding of the nature of disability. They are not genuine from the experiences of disabled people, but rather from the perceptions of others. While conducting my study I will be interested to see which kinds of terminology and language are used in the newspaper articles from my sample.3.4 Disability Theory the Medical model and the Social modelThe medical model of disability has formed the basis of commonsense assumptions and beliefs about the nature of disability. This perspective focuses on the individual and his or her impairment. It imposes a supposal of biological or physiological inferiority upon disabl ed persons (Hahn, 1985). Medical views attribute physical and intellectual impairments as constituting disability, while denying its social and political nature. Oliver (1983 and 1996a) prefers the term individual model and argues that medicalisation is one element of this, along with psychological aspects. Medical accounts amount to a personal tragedy theory of disability (Oliver, 1990 and Finkelstein, 1980) in which disability simply happens to individuals and is personal to them, it implies that any difficulties are a direct result of impairments (Finkelstein, 1993) this forms the basis of everyday beliefs. In terms of rehabilitation, emphasis has been placed on functional limitations of an individual and attempts to find ways of preventing, curing or (failing these) caring for disabled people (Marks cited in Williams, 2001 pg 125).As mentioned throughout this dissertation, this way of understanding disability has been heavily criticised by disabled people and disability has been re-conceptualised as a social and political problem through the work of disabled groups in the 1960s (Barnes, 1997). Disability theory has roughly been divided into American and British contributions. I will briefly outline the work of American sociologists, however I am more concerned with the work of British authors as it better relates to my dissertation and its theoretical standpoint. American writers during the 1960s challenged the idea that individual medical conditions or impairments were the cause of disability. Goffman (1963) discuses the role of dirt in spoiling (pg. 15) a persons social identity, one of the forms of stigma he identifies derives from physical abnormalities. He also identifies that disability is socially constructed and concludes that the attitudes of professional contributes to experiences of disability. Stone (cited in Barnes, 1997) argues that the social construction of disability is based on the power of the sate in restricting welfare to those who re quire it. The importance of work and production in industrialised society has meant that those who are unable to participate are in need of assistance from the state, who along with medical professionals, are able to define disability as an individual problem and determine the level of access to welfare and other state services. Other writers, notably Albrecht (cited in Barnes, 1997) point out that disability has been controlled and transformed into commercial enterprise (pg. 6) he claims that societies produce different forms of illness, impairment and disability. The ways in which these are interpreted is dependent on economic factors he argues. American functionalist/interactionist accounts of disability are derivative of Parsonian ideas and focus on the role of being sick which is expected of disabled people and considered to be a form of deviance (Oliver, 1996b). The liberal values that exist in an industrial (and post- industrial) society place importance on personal responsib ility and a strong work ethic, deviancy is created when an individual is unable to conform to these ideals. Writers have also argued that people with impairments are dependent on medical professionals who assist in the psychological accommodation of a disabled identity (pg. 21) and provide rehabilitation. The main criticisms made of the American tradition are that they over look the significance of social and economic factors central to experiences of disability. They also fail to take into account the perspectives of disabled people themselves, both these points form the main focus of British writers which I will turn to next.British theorists have been much more critical in their assessments of disability and have explicitly expressed their arguments about the oppression, prejudice and discrimination that many disabled people impinge on on a routine basis. A number of writers have approached disability in society through a materialist or Marxist analysis, focusing on economic and political factors. Others have highlighted the importance of the subjective experiences of disability and the role of culture. References have been made to the importance of gender, ethnicity, class, sexuality and other social factors which shape individual understandings of disability (Barnes, 1997). Theorists who use a materialist framework claim that oppression is caused by economic structures. The lives of disabled people have little value in a capitalist society as they are deemed unable to contribute to economic and social life (Riddell, 1996). Finkelstein (1980) identifies three phases in history with regard to societal response to impairment . In the first, pre-industrial phase people with impairments were not excluded from economic life and the notion of disability did not exist. This was because work was subsistence based and aimed at providing basic nutriment and amenities for survival. Communities needed all the labour they could get from its members (Barnes and Merce r, 2003). The second phase was that of industrial capitalism during the 19th century, both Oliver (1990) and Finkelstein (1980) argue that during this time Disability developed along side capitalist production and free market enterprise. The rise of factory production and the intense levels of speed and control involved meant that disabled workers were not welcome in the work place. Processes of urbanisation created fragmented communities and weakened family networks. The growth of towns and cities to house the work force were geographically and structurally inadequate for disabled people and contributed to their segregation from wider society and the introduction of residential institutions (Barnes and Mercer, 2003). For Finkelstein, it was at this point that people with impairments became a distinctly oppressed group, he argues that in phase the use of applied science and the activism of disabled people will end oppression and disability will cease to be viewed in individualistic or medical terms (Barnes, 1997). mayhap the growth of the internet and websites like BBC Ouch mark the beginning of this phase. Oliver (1990) also discusses capitalism and disability, he applies Marxist ideas about the power of ideology to argue that the values which form the basis of social practice and culture conceptualised disability as a personal tragedy and aided the development of the individual model.Critics of Finkelstein and Olivers materialist analyses of disability argue that they over look the individual experiences of disability, rather than treat disabled people as a homogenous group. The social model needs to be reconceptualised with this in estimate and from a postmodernist perspective which recognises diversity (Shakespeare, 1994, Morris, 1991, Crow, 1992). These writers discuss the prejudiced attitudes towards disabled people through culture, as material explanations fall short in explaining why discrimination exists and how disablist culture produces it. *incom plete*3.5 Media representation of Disability and effects on the audienceThe stereotypical portrayal of disabled people within popular culture is one of the most significant factors contributing to the discrimination of disabled people. Hunt (1966) argues that disabled people represent an other in society and pose a threat to the able-bodied values entrenched in its structure. He describes this threat as being divided into five forms, as unfortunate, useless, different, oppressed and sick (pg. 146). Disabled people are considered unfortunate because of the belief that they are unable to lead a full life. They are useless because they cannot contribute economically, different because they do not conform to normal expectations of a human being and marked out as members of a minority group (pg. 150). Finally, they are oppressed and sick because they do not fit in, for the able-bodied, normal world we are representations of many of the things they most fear- tragedy, loss, dark and the u nknown contact with us throws up in peoples faces the fact of affection and death in the world (pg. 155-156). Hunts arguments about the way disability is understood in western culture are applicable today in studying the misconceptions which are reproduced by the media. As discussed in Chapter Two, such misconceptions stem from the beliefs and practices of the past and have become firmly ingrained within society. Disablist attitudes become normalised through a process of social learning (Barnes, 1991) however, the extent and nature of this process is open to debate and many argue that there is no real way of sharp how he media influences perception. There have been many studies which have investigated the cultural portrayals of disability, some examples follow.3.5.1 Disabling imagery and the media by Colin Barnes.The focus of this study is the portrayal of disabled people in the media and its stereotypical nature. Using secondary data from the content analysis studies of various o rganizations, Barnes (1992) identifies several stereotypes of disabled people produced within the media. These are the disabled person as pitiable and pathetic as an object of violence as sinister and evil as atmosphere or curio as super cripple as an object of ridicule as their own worst enemy as a burden as sexually abnormal , as incapable of participating in community life and as normal (Barnes, 1992, pg 3). Rather than focus on particular aspects of the media, Barnes chose to study all aspects of the media, including the press, radio, television, books and so on. He argues that media depictions of disability contribute to experiences of discrimination in a significant way. He goes on to reiterate that the poverty experienced by disabled people cannot be explained by the traditional model which suggests individual physical or intellectual limitations to be the root cause. It is caused by reactive environments and disabling barriers. Thus disability refers to a complex system of s ocial constraints imposed on disabled people by a highly discriminatory society (Barnes, 1992, pg. 5). As mentioned in Chapter T7wo, stereotypical assumptions about disability stem from the beliefs and practices of earlier times, they are embedded in the very structure of society and are expressed in all institutions- ed

Neuropsychology: Overview, Applications and Analysis

neuropsychology Overview, Applications and Analysis psychophysiology, the Newest Tool in Psychology physiological psychologyAndrew Davis control panel of Contents (Jump to)1) An Introduction2) physiological psychology as a new field2.1) Key monetary value in physiological psychologyClinical psychophysiologyExperimental Neuropsychologycognitive Neuropsychology2.2) the role that Neuropsychology plays3) The history of Neuropsychology4) The difference between fields related to Neuropsychology5) Neuropsychology in S push throughh Africa6) relevancy of Neuropsychology for Counsellors7) ConclusionThe authors brain, and his thought processesReference List1) An IntroductionHumans resist change. Humans resist the new.It is with the above mantra in take heed, this textbook will explore Neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is one of the newest disciplines inside psychology, and therefore subject to wariness if not revulsion by those involved in psychology, due more or less solely on its newn ess. Registered Counsellors in South Africa face an interesting dilemma in an effort to be as effective as possible Neuropsychology must be utilized, however, its newness creates a problem. Re-educating counsellors costs time and money in a state of matter that cannot afford it, and not doing so leads to an almost wrong practice of wilfully excluding the usage of a tool that aids in ones work.It is with this in mind that this text aims to provide an exploration of Neuropsychology in the following categories Neuropsychology as a new field, important terminology in this field, the role that it plays, the history of Neuropsychology in short, differentiation of Neuropsychology and related disciplines, and finally an exploration of Neuropsychology within South Africa and its relevance to Registered Counsellors.A representation of the authors brain and mental processes will in any case be included.2) Neuropsychology as a new fieldNeuropsychology is a new field even when compared to P sychology itself, a science that has completely formally existed for little compared to other medical sciences- and so is associated with much confusion. An excellent and concise definition is that Neuropsychology is, the scientific investigation of cognition, that is, of all mental abilities perception, attention, learning, memory, treat of spoken and written language, thinking, reasoning and belief formation (Coltheart, 2002139). There are several terms in Neuropsychology that must be known.2.1) Key terms in NeuropsychologyAs with most fields of science, there are numerous technical concepts and terms. The following terms are important if one wishes to let familiar at Neuropsychology, but pale in comparison to the more technical terms that a NeuropsychologistsClinical NeuropsychologyClinical Neuropsychology, Is a forcefulness in professional psychology that applies principles of assessment and intervention based upon the scientific study of human behaviour sic as it relates to normal and abnormal functioning of the fundamental nervous system (American Psychological Association, 2010). Clinical Neuropsychologists are pre-occupied with normality and abnormity of the brain and spine with regards to psychological (mental) functioning, and how to correct the abnormal. This is the branch of Neuropsychology most involved in psychological illness and damage.Experimental NeuropsychologyExperimental Neuropsychology is occupied with the researching of cognition and behaviour (All Psychology Careers, n.d.). As with all science, Experimental Neuropsychology provides the research, studies, and trial-and-error observations that validate the theory throughout psychology as a whole. Experimental Neuropsychology is therefore of paramount importance in Neuropsychology, as it provides the basis for theories.cognitive NeuropsychologyCognitive Neuropsychology is focused on hew the specifics of the brains form and functions translates into mental (psychological) processes.2. 2) the role that Neuropsychology plays3) The history of NeuropsychologyAlthough the relation between the mind and a thinking-organ (once thought of the heart, but many times as the brain) and behaviour, cognition, and emotion have been known and explored for millennia, from philosophers, holy men, and apothecaries, to physicians and healers (Stanley, 2000) it is only since the middle of the nineteenth-century that Neuropsychology has been scientifically delineate (Hallett, n.d.).The now famous Broca, Wernicke, and Dax were the first to observe an empirical link between damage to specific areas of the brain and the disruption of speech (as considerably as cognizance of speech (Hallett, n.d., Banich Compton, 2011). Once empirical science was first used it has become both the de jure and the de facto means in which theory and practice regarding Neuropsychology have been linked. No longer did theory disregard observation.Due to the limitation of equipment, there was little progress in Neuropsychology until the development of brain-imaging technology, as only autopsies could conclusively be used to observe most types of brain damage. This technological disadvantage acted in conjunction with the rise of the behavioural perspective of Psychology to place Neuropsychology out of favour (Coltheart,2008) .Once magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was invented followed quickly by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)- was developed, the cognitive sciences advanced again, thus allowing the legal action of the brain to be viewed while the observed was conscious and thinking, or moving. This allowed real-time comparison between the brain, thoughts and actions (All Psychology Careers, n.d. 2)4) The difference between fields related to NeuropsychologyThere is a large amount of overlap with Neuropsychology and the medical (more physically minded) cognitive sciences. These differences must be known so as to reverse confusion.Cognitive Neuroscience, is different from Ne uropsychology in that although the two disciples are involved in brain-damage and the information related to it, Cognitive Neuroscience focuses on the underlying neural tool that lies below cognition (Daniel, 2000)Cognitive intuition, is different from Neuropsychology5) Neuropsychology in South AfricaSouth Africa has an independent institution regarding Neuropsychology, the South African Clinical neuropsychological Association (SACNA) which aims to, promote and stimulate interest in the field of neuropsychology, while maintaining standards in neuropsychological practice. This is achieved by ensuring that its full members have demonstrated knowledge and competence in the field, by way of examination and peer review (SACNA, n.d.). The organizations website provides links for psychologists to become part of the organization and all the benefits that it entails, as well as provide educational workshops (SACNA, n.d.). The website also provides a means to find a Neuropsychologist (SACN A, n.d.).South Africas status as a developing nation translates into a lack of funding for social services, as well as a lack of disposable income to pay for services. Therefore, the number of specialists such as Neuropsychologists is low, but the number of Registered Counsellors is higher, but still low compared to the ideal an ideal where there was never a lack of mental health experts for those in need.6) Relevance of Neuropsychology for CounsellorsIn the South African context, registered counsellors act within the role of gatekeepers to psychological support. In short, if a counsellor cannot support a customer due to the client presenting issues and problems outside of the limited remit of counselling, the counsellor will then decide who to refer their clients to so that experts in specific psychological fields.Therefore, it is of paramount importance that counsellors be educated with enough of these more specialist fields so that a full decision on referral is made with the f ullest amount of knowledge to back it.As counsellors act as gatekeepers, specialists are kept protected from overwork. This is due to the fact that a lower bar of entry (not necessarily a negative thing) for counsellors translates to there being a larger number than more specialist psychological health professionals who are fewer in number, and able to treat few people.7) In conclusionNeuropsychology is an interesting and powerful new part that resides in Psychology as a whole, but is related to Cognitive Neuroscience, Cognitive Science in a way that bridges the physical and the mental. It is the bridge that connects two, once separate, worlds.Neuropsychology is not only the domain of expert specialists, but should also aim all mental health professionals as part of it. Due to the relatively tiny amount of neuropsychological specialists registered counsellors must act as gatekeepers referring those who require Neuropsychological aid to Neuropsychologists, and referring or keeping those who require different help.The authors brain, and his thought processesReference ListAll Psychology Careers. (n.d. 1). What is Experimental Neuropsychology?. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http//www.allpsychologycareers.com/topics/experimental-neuropsychology.htmlAll Psychology Careers. (n.d. 2). Cognitive Neuropsychology. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http//www.allpsychologycareers.com/topics/cognitive-neuropsychology.htmlAmerican Psychological Association. (2010). Clinical Neuropsychology. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http//www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/neuro.aspxBanich, M.T., Compton, R.J. (2011). Cognitive Neuroscience International edition (Third ed.).Wadsworth Cengage Learning.Coltheart, M. (2002). Cognitive neuropsychology. In Wixted, J. (Ed.) Stevens Handbook of Experimental Psychology, Third Edition Volume 4 Methodology. John Wiley Sons, pp 139-174. Coltheart, M. (2008). Cognitive neuropsychology. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http//www.scholarpedia.org/article/C ognitive_neuropsychologyDaniel, L.S. (2000). Understanding Implicit memory A cognitive neuroscience approach. In Gazzaniga, M.S. Cognitive Neuroscience A Reader. WileyHallett, S. (n.d.). Neuropsychology. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http//www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/semBasNeuro_chapter5.pdfSACNA. ( n.d.). South African Clinical Neuropsychological Association. Retrieved 5 April, 2015 from http//www.sacna.co.za/Stanley, F. (2000). Minds behind the Brain A history of the pioneers and their discoveries. capital of the United Kingdom Oxford University Press.

Cocaine Drug Abuse

cocain Drug Abuse cocain through the ages from elixir to poison. cocain through ages from elixir to poison.AbstractCocaine, a plant alkaloid derived from coca leaves is a potent stimulant of CNS and has local anaesthetic agent accomplish as well. Historically, it was ingested in the form of jaw coca leaves, to suppress hunger and fatigue. With disc overy of its local anesthetic properties, cocain was introduced into world of medicine and a local anesthetic, but over last few decades, gained popularity as medicate of abuse. Cocaine carries with it slap-up potential for dependance and abuse. It is administered through unhomogeneous thoroughf ares, smoking free-base crack and intranasal inhalation cosmos most popular. Its primarily metabolized in liver and distributed to all organic structure tissues. Due to lipid nature it tends to concent deem in flair and adipose tissues with degenerative administration. Its in the main eliminated through kidneys, but saliva and stool s are also routes of excretion. A number of health hazards have been shown to be associated with cocaine use including, cardiac abnormalities, psychological disturbances, addiction potential and renal failure with or without rhabdomyolysis. Acute and chronic cocaine toxicities with sufficient tranquil data are included. Techniques for detecting cocaine in ancestry including enzyme linked immunoassay and POCT (Point of care screening tests) have also been discussed. An analysis of new-fashioned trends in cocaine uses have been studied and presented on with graphical illustrations of epidemiological evidence to support the data.Introduction and objectiveObjective to display how cocaine has evolved through time in its uses and available forms, from simple coca leaf grind custom of South Americans in 2500 BC to modern forms of freebase-coke among anformer(a)(prenominal)s as one of the most commonly abuse toxic drug.MethodologyData was mainly collected from electronic resources, but text on immunology and pharmacology was also consulted. From electronic sources, I mainly used search engines victimisation a number of keywords including fib of cocaine, crack, pharmacokinetics of cocaine, mode of action , coca leaf, acuate cocaine poisoning, chronic cocaine toxicity, Karl Koller, Sigmund Freud, Immunoassay, etc. I also went through a number of journals available online, and a number of researches conducted which related to cocaine. My aim was to find changes in cocaine use from its discovery to date, and show, with help of collected data, that it has moved in a negative direction. brief historyCocaine, use of which, according to some sources, date back to at least 1200 years, has now, rightfully, earned itself a place in drugs of abuse list among others care Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamine, etc. To date, cocaines uses have evolved from gaining popularity as topical anesthetic agent, and as component of energizing drinks to becoming one of the most abused drugs in the world. It is a strongly addictive stimulant drug, which acts by interfering with cerebral and peripheral synaptic transmission among neurons. Mode of action has been described in greater detail ulterior in pharmacodynamics section, but for brief introduction, it interferes with reuptake of, and thereby enhance duration of action of, monoamines, dopamine, serotonin and nor epinephrine Brain PF et.al (1989). It also let ons membrane stabilizing effect, to a greater extent commonly referred to as local anesthetic effect. Latter is achieved through modulation of voltage gated atomic number 11 channels and consequent blockade of sensory impulses conduction from that unwrap of the neuron to central nervous system. Brain PF et.al (1989)Earliest records of cocaine use reveal it to be a spark of South American custom of chewing coca leaves. This use is believed to date back to 2500BC. Steven Cohen (1981) Practice of chewing mixture of tobacco and coca leaves was specify b y Nicols Monardes, in 1569, to induce great contentment. Cocaine is the active component of coca leaves, which also contains nicotine. Karch SB (1998).In 1859, Italian doctor, Paulo Montegazza, after witnessing coca use by natives of Peru, and getting mesmerise by it, decided to contain the personal effects of cocaine on himself. After his studies he concluded his findings into a paper in which he declared cocaine to be medical checkuply useful in treating furred tongue in the morning, flatulence and whitening the teeth. Steven R. King (1992).In 1863, French chemist, Angelo Mariani, introduced popular cocavine, Vin Mariani. Vin Mariani wasproduced from mixture of 6 mg coca leaves per fluid ounce of Bordeaux wine. Courtwright DT (2001) Angelo Mariani, creator of Vin Mariani, which later became the hallmark of cocavines was honored with Vatican gold medal by Pope Leo XIII for this achievement. Ethanol, a component of vin mariani, is believed to extract cocaine from coca leaves. In 1884, the concept of cocavine was adopted by John S. Pemberton, with introduction of Pembertons French Wine Coca. After prohibitions imposed on cocaine use and manufacture of cocaine-containing products including cocavine in 1885, Pemberton introduced carbonated, non-alcoholic form of Vin Mariani and called it Coca-cola. Richard Ashley (1975). From 1906 onwards, however, after Pure Food and Drug act was passed, decocainised forms of coca were used for manufacture of coca-cola.In 1884, Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, recommended cocaine for treatment of morphine and alcohol addiction. A st prescribegy that was later employed in 1879 when cocaine was used to treat morphine addiction. Steven Cohen (1981).In 1985, use of cocaine for induction of spinal anesthesia was accidentally discovered by American neurologist Leonard Corning while he compositioning the effects of cocaine on spinal buttocks in a dog and accidentally pierced the dura matter. Corning JL (1885) Cocaine was, howeve r, not used as anesthetic in spinal surgical operation until 1989 when first planned cocaine induce spinal anesthesia was administered in a surgery, by August Bier. A. Bier, (1899) Coca leaves have traditionally been used as suppressants for fatigue, thirst, and hunger. Its use has now been limited to Andean countries, where coca leaf chewing and coca tea consumption are still practiced. Industrially, coca leaves serve as source of drug cocaine, and in some cosmetic and food industries, including coca cola. Richard Ashley (1975) From 1980s to date, cocaine has gained popularity as drug of abuse, and has widely replaced diacetylmorphine and other narcotics as drug of abuse, cosmos used in different forms and administered via various routes. Richard Ashley (1975)Discovery Discovery of cocaine, as local anesthetic, is claim to fame for Austrian ophthalmologist, Karl Koller. Kollers draw is credited with demonstration of anesthetic effect of cocaine, in 1884. Karl Koller was a close associate of Sigmund Freud who in same year recommended cocaine to be employed in treatment for morphine and alcohol addiction. Hruby K (1986). Koller studied effects of cocaine on human face centre by applying the drug to his own eye and later whoreson it with pins. He presented his findings to the Heidelberg Ophthalmological Society in same year. Hruby K (1986)After successfully experimenting on himself, Koller used cocaine as local anesthetic in eye surgeries, a use that continues to this day. Cocaine was later employed in other fields including dentistry for induction of local anesthesia, Today, however, cocaine has largely been replaced by other local anesthetic agents like lidocaine, xylocaine, bupivacaine, etc, which produce local anesthetic effect as efficiently and do not carry potential for abuse.Hruby K (1986) isolation Friedrich Gaedcke, aGerman chemist, was first person to successfully isolate cocaine from coca leaves, in 1855. An improved isolation process was, howe ver, developed by Albert Niemann, a Ph.D. student at the University of Gttingen in Germany, in 1859. Niemann wrote a dissertation describing steps of isolation titled, ber eine neue organische Base in den Cocablttern (On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves), which was published in 1969. F. Gaedcke (1855)Formal Chemical Name (IUPAC) for cocaine(1R,5S)-methyl 8-methyl-3-(phenylcarbonyloxy)-8-azabicyclo3.2.1octane-2-carboxylate.Medicalisation and popularization Ever since its discovery, cocaines medical uses were quickly exploited through research and experimentation. Spanish physicians described first medical uses of cocaine as archean as 1596, but the use of cocaine did not become more widespread until 1859, when Albert Niemann detached the drug from coca leaves. Soon after it was isolated, cocaine was used to try to cure almost all the illnesses and maladies that were known to man. (Albert Niemann 1860)1859s Montagezzis discovery about cocaine be useful in treating furred tong ue in the morning, flatulence and whitening the teeth, was one of the earliest recorded studies that signified possible medical importance of cocaine.In 1879, Vassili von Anrep, of the University of Wrzburg, demonstrated analgesic properties of cocaine in an experiment that he conducted on a frog. He prepared two separate jars, one containing cocaine-salt solution, other containing salt water serving as control. One of frogs peglegs was submerged in cocaine solution and other in control followed by stimulation of leg in different ways. Reactions in two legs varied con locatingrably. In the same year, cocaine began to be used in treatment of morphine addiction.The commercial end product of purified cocaine gained momentum only in the mid-1880s. Its greatest medical value was in ophthalmology. Eye-surgery stood in desperate emergency of a good local anesthetic. This was because in eye operations it is often essential for a conscious patient to move his eye as directed by the surgeo n without flinching. Karl Kollers demonstration of anesthetic properties of cocaine in 1884 was an important breakthrough establishing cocaines importance, medically when it was introduced in Germany as local anesthetic for eye surgery. (Altman Aj et.al 1985)Kollers discovery was later followed in 1985 by Leonard Cornings accidental demonstration of cocaines use in induction of spinal anesthesia, which became formally employed in spinal surgery in 1989 when first planned cocaine induced spinal anesthesia was administered by August Bier.Medical use of cocaine has largely been restricted to induction of local anesthesia. Even as local anesthetic agent, discovery of hazardous effects of cocaine use led to early development of safer alternative drugs like lidocaine, etc.One of its first non medical uses of cocaine was in military. In 1883 Theodor Aschenbrandt administered cocaine to members of the Bavarian army. It was found that the drug intensify their endurance on maneuver. His pos itive findings were published in a German medical journal, which brought the effects of this wonder drug to a wider medical audience, including Sigmund Freud.Cocaine was sold as over the counter drug until 1916. It was widely used in tonics, toothache cures, patent medicines, and chocolate cocaine tablets. Prospective buyers were advised (in the words of pharmaceutical firm Parke-Davis) that cocaine could make the coward brave, the silent eloquent, and render the sufferer insensitive to pain. Cocaine was a popular ingredient in wines, notably Vin Mariani. Coca wine received endorsement from prime-ministers, royalty and even the Pope. The Vatican gold medal that Angelo Mariani received for it go out forever signify the popularity of cocaine through that period of time.By the late Victorian, era use of cocaine had appeared as a vice in literature, for instance, Arthur Conan Doyles fictitious Sherlock Holmes.. Number of admissions to drug treated programme in each year is plotted aga inst time for both cocaine and heroin. Graph clearly displays the discharge in trend from use of heroin towards cocaine. A combination gaining popularity is speedball, which is formulated by mixing heroin with cocaine.From 1980s to date, cocaine has gained popularity as drug of abuse, being used in different forms and administered via various routes, as evident by figure above which displays the escalation in crack / cocaine usage with concomitant simplification in heroin use.ProhibitionIn first part of the twentieth century, with addictive properties of cocaine becoming more apparent with studies, cocaine found itself de jure prohibited. Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (1914) outlawed unauthorized sales and distribution of cocaine incorrectly manakinifying it as a narcotic.In United Nations 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, cocaine was listed as Schedule I drug, thereby making its manufacture, distribution, import, export, trade, use and possession illegal unless(prenominal) sanctioned by the state.In 1970s controlled substances act, cocaine was listed as a Schedule II drug in United States. It carries high abuse potential but also serves medicinal purpose. It is a class A drug in the United Kingdom, and a List 1 drug of Opium law in the Netherlands.Modern Usage In late 90s and early 2000s, crack became very popular among Americans and in past few years has also taken its toll on UK. According to an estimate, U.S cocaine market exceeded $ 70 billion in year 2005, demonstrating the popularity of this menace. News reports are flooded with celebrity arrests on charge of cocaine posession or use. A section on recent facts and figures related to cocaine discusses the modern trends in greater detail later.Addiction potential Along with amphetamine, cocaine is one of the most widely abused drugs in the world. Powerful stimulant properties of cocaine are beyond doubt. By inhibiting neuronal reuptake of excitatory neurotransmitters, dopamine, serotonin and nore pinephrine, cocaine enhances synaptic concentrations of these neurotransmitters in specific brain areas nucleus accumbens and amygdala which are referred to as the reward center of brain. During 1980s, cocaine widely replaced heroin as drug of abuse, due to its euphoric properties, wide accessibility and low cost.Different forms and Routes of administration of cocaineSmoking Crack, freebase or smokable form of cocaine, was produced and became popular drug of abuse in 1980s. Earliest reports of crack use propose an epidemic in Bahamas from 1980. By 1985, crack gained popular ranking among drug users across America.Crack is produced by mixing 2 parts cocaine hydrochloride with one part baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). It differs from cocaine hydrochloride in being more volatile, a property that makes it better suited for inhalation administration (smoking) than cocaine hydrochloride. Smoking freebase cocaine releases methylecgonidine, an effect not achieved with insufflation or inj ection (described later), thereby making it a specific test marker for freebase cocaine smokers. Studies suggest that methylecgonidine is more harmful to heart, liver and lungs than other byproducts of cocaine. Inhalation leads to rapid denseness of cocaine into bloodstream via lungs, reaching brain within five seconds of ingestion. Following rush exceeds snorting in excitement but does not last long.Oral Ancient tradition of South Americans to chew coca leaves in same manner is tobacco, is another rule of cocaine consumption. Alternatively, coca leaves whitethorn be consumed like tea by mixing with liquid. Coca leaf consumers have raised a controversy over whether it should be abandoned or not. Rationale behind this controversy is that strong acid in our stomach hydrolyzes cocaine, attenuating its effects on brain therefore, unless it is taken with an alkaline substance, such as lime, which neutralizes stomachs acid, cocaine intake should not be criminalized. Cocaine is also u sed as spoken anesthetic, both medically and unofficially. Cocaine powder is use to gums to numb the gingiva and teeth. Colloquial terms for this route of administration are numbies, gummies and cocoa puffs.Another method for oral administration, commonly known as pull the wool over someones eyes bomb, is to pack cocaine in rolled up paper and swallowing it.InsufflationColloquial terms for which are snorting, sniffing, or blowing is believed to be most commonly employed method of cocaine ingestion in west. Cocaine is poured on a flat, hard surface and divided into fine powder before being insufflated in bumps, lines, or rails. Devices used as aid in insufflation are known as tooters. Rolled up banknotes, hollowed-out pens, cut straws, pointed ends of keys, specialized spoons, long fingernails, and (clean) tampon applicators may all be used a tooters.Injection This achieves the greatest bioavailability, 100%, in shortest span of time, since drug is directly administered into bloods tream saving time and trim back bioavailability that occurs with drug tightness from settle of drug administration into bloodstream. Resultant rush is intense and rapid. Risk of contracting blood-borne infections is greatest.Speedball, a mixture of cocaine with heroin used intravenously is a popular and dangerous method of cocaine ingestion. It claims credit for many deaths, including celebrities like John Belushi, Chris Farley ,Mitch Hedberg, River Phoenix and Layne Staley.ADME PharmacokineticsAbsorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion of Cocaine.Before ancestry discussion about pharmacokinetics or ADME of cocaine, table below summarizes the relationship of route of administration with onset of action, time taken to achieve peak effect, duration of action and half life. (Clarke, 1986)Absorption Absorption refers to movement of drug from site of administration into bloodstream.As with any drug, absorption of cocaine depends on various factors and varies considerably with them. Factors which influence drug absorption include drug formulation, route of administration, lipid solubility, pH of the medium, blood supply and surface area available for absorption. As evident from tabulated figures above, cocaine differs greatly in onset of action varying between 7 seconds up to 10 proceedings from one route of administration to another. This is a factor of absorption of drug which depends on route of administration. Each route is separately discussed below in greater details. (Clarke, 1986).Orally administered cocaineCocaine induces vasoconstriction in vessels supplying oral mucosa and resultant reduction in blood supply slakes down its absorption by decreasing surface area from which drug is absorbed. Therefore when by word of mouth administered, drug is slowly absorbed into bloodstream, taking roughly 30 minutes. Absorption is also incomplete roughly one third of administered dose is absorbed. Due to slow absorption, onset of action is also delayed and peak effect is, however, not achieved until about 50-90 minutes after administration. Effect is, however, longer lasting, roughly 60 minutes after attainment of peak effect.Another factor affecting absorption of orally administered cocaine is pH of the stomach. As previously mentioned, stomach acid hydrolyzes cocaine, resulting in inadequate and incomplete absorption. To improve absorption it is common practice to take cocaine along with an alkaline liquid to neutralize acidic pH.InsufflationsInsufflations results in cover of the mucosa covering sinuses with cocaine, from where it is absorbed. Absorption is standardised to that from oral cavity, cocaine induced vasoconstriction beneath mucosa results in slow and incomplete absorption (30-60%). Efficiency of absorption increases with concentration of drug. According to a study, time taken to reach peak effect via this route of administration averages 14.6 minutes.InjectionInjected cocaine is directly administered into bloodstream eliminating need for absorption. According same study, as mentioned for insufflation, time taken to reach peak effect of cocaine through injection averaged 3.1 minutes, roughly five times less than time for insufflation.SmokingSmoking crack delivers large quantities of the drug to the lungs, resultant absorption is rapid and effects created are comparable to intravenous administration. These effects, which are snarl almost immediately after smoking, are intense and last for 5-10 minutes. According to Perez-Reyes et al, 1982, volunteers who smoked 50 mg of cocaine base in a controlled study experiment achieved rapidly elevated plasma cocaine level compared to intravenous cocaine administration.DistributionFollowing absorption into bloodstream, cocaine is distributed, via blood, to all body tissues including springy organs like brain, lungs, liver, heart, kidneys and adrenals. It crosses both blood-brain and placental barrier. Being lipid soluble, it easily traverses biological memb ranes via simple diffusion. It is believed to accumulate in brain and adipose tissue with restate administration, owing to its lipid nature. In an experiment, distribution and kinetics of cocaine in human race body were studied using Positron Emission Topography (PET) technique with radioactively labeled (carbon-11) cocaine on 14 healthy male subjects. Rate of uptake and clearance were found to vary among organs. Following results were obtained for time, in minutes, taken by radioactively labeled cocaine to reach peak value in following organsLungs 45 seconds.Heart and Kidneys 2-3 minutes.Adrenals 7-9 minutes. colorful 10 minutes.Liver, which is the key site for metabolism of cocaine is where distribution is most sluggish, increasing the half life of cocaine. The Journal of Nuclear Medicine ( 1992 )Metabolism As already mentioned, cocaine is primarily metabolised in liver. It is estimated to get metabolized within two hours of administration. Half-life varies between 0.7 1.5 hour s (Clarke, 1986), depending on route of administration among various other factors. There are three possible routes for bio-transformation of cocaine.Ester linkages in cocaine are hydrolyzed by plasma pseudocholinesterases and hepatic enzymes, human liver carboxylesterase form 1 (hCE-1)and human liver carboxylesterase form 2 (hCE-2). Benzoyl group is eliminated to produce ecgonine methyl ester. This is the major route for metabolism of cocaine.A secondary route, suggested by Fleming et al. 1990, proposes spontaneous hydrolysis, possibly non-enzymatic, followed by demethylation to produce benzoylecgonine. N-demethylation of cocaine is a minor route which leads to formation of norcocaine.Final degradation of metabolites yields ecgonine.Principal inactive metabolites are benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, and ecgonine itself. Norcocaine is an active metabolite and may reveal itself in acute intoxication.Metabolism of cocaine may be influenced by a number of factorsAlcoholWhen coca ine is co-administered with alcohol a compound called Cocaethylene is formed. Cocaethylene is associated with an increased risk of liver damage and premature death.Pregnancy.Liver disease.Aged men.Congenital cholinesterase deficiency.In all the aforementioned conditions, except alcohol, rate of cocaine metabolism is reduced, leading to elevated levels and duration of action of cocaine, enhancing its harmful effects of on the body. Following is a schematic representation of metabolic pathways of cocaine.According to Andrew (1997) have found that the continuous use of alcohol with cocaine produce cocaethylene which is similar in the action of cocaine but it has more blood stream concentration by three to five times than cocaine as a result of its high half life. Its much attractive to be used for abuse as a result of slower removal from the body. Different types of side effects are associated with cocaethylene like liver damage, seizure and immuno compromised functioning . Cocaethylen e has more possibility for sudden death by 18 25 times than using cocaine alone .Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) has been implicated as being important in metabolism of cocaine, even though it has limited capacity to fully hydrolyze cocaine. BChE is in particular essential for cocaine detoxification. A lot of research has been done to study the effect of employing this enzyme in cocaine detoxification and in anti-cocaine medications. Cocaine are hydrolyzed by human BChE in a slow rate , however, in university of Nebraska medical center the scientist at molecular biology and biochemistry have developed a pas seul (A328Y) of human butyrylcholinesterase, which promises four fold greater efficiency in accelerating cocaine metabolism.Elimination or excretion 1-9% of cocaine is excreted unaltered in urine along with metabolites, ecgonine methyl ester, benzoylecgonine, and ecgonine. Unchanged cocaine may also be eliminated through GI tract and/or be excreted in saliva. Most of the parent d rug is eliminated from plasma within 4 hours after administration but metabolites may remain detectable for up to 144 hours after administration. Elimination of cocaine via kidneys is enhanced by acidification of urine. As already mentioned, cocaine easily traverses placental barrier, and the active metabolite, norcocaine is believed to persist in amniotic fluid for up to 5 days. In give suck mothers, cocaine metabolite can be found and presets for longer time up to 36 hours after the first administration and it will be found after they excreted into maternal milk. On the other hand, it will be eliminated very fast through exhalation or vapor when it is administrated through smokes. Ambre J et.al (1988)In an experiment, the investigations of chronic cocaine oral administration effects in those healthy volunteers having a history of cocaine abuse were continued. There were sixteen daily sessions of oral cocaine administration while subjects were kept in a controlled clinical ward. I n every session subjects received five equal doses of oral cocaine at one hour interval. Throughout session, the doses of cocaine were administrated by an elevating rate starting from 100 mg as an initial dose (500 mg/ day) reaching to cd mg (2 g/day) by a rate of increase of 25 mg/ dose/ session (125 mg / session). Urine specimens were collected throughout the study while at the end of the study specimens like saliva and plasma were periodically collected during the one week withdrawal phase and during the dosing session. The analysis of cocaine and cocaine metabolite were carried out by solid phase extraction and followed by gas chromatographic mass spectrometric analysis in the SIM mode. ARE is defined as a method or plots used to calculate the Half-lives of urinary elimination for cocaine and cocaine metabolites which stand for ( the amount remaining to be excreted ) plots. The urinary elimination for cocaine and cocaines metabolites in the Result obtained yielded two phases. An initial elimination phase during withdrawal which was has the same elimination pattern observed after acute dosing, and a endpoint phase.Results were as followsInitial phase Mean plasma cocaine elimination half-life 1.5 0.1 h.Mean salivary cocaine elimination half-life 1.2 0.2 h.Mean urinary cocaine elimination half-life 4.1 0.9 h.Terminal phaseMean urinary cocaine elimination half-life 19 4.2 h.A terminal elimination phase was also observed for cocaine metabolites with half-life estimates ranging from 14.6 to 52.4 h, which greatly exceeded previous estimates from studies of acute cocaine administration. This experiment shows that with chronic use, cocaine accumulates in the body with resultant prolonged terminal elimination phase for itself and its metabolites.Like any pharmacokinetic feature of a drug, elimination may also be influenced by various factors. Since renal elimination is major route for cocaine excretion, state of renal function is essential determinant of effi ciency of elimination. Patients with poor renal function are much more likely to develop toxicity than those with properly functioning kidneys. Also, as already mentioned, acidification of urine accelerates the elimination of cocaine from the body. Drummer O.H et.al ( 2001)Pharmacodynamics of cocaineMechanism of action.Cocaine mediates its actions through two basic mechanismsInhibition of re-uptake of monoamines dopamine, nor adrenalin, and serotonin.Blockade of sodium channels.As previously stated, a major breakthrough in field of surgery was discovery of cocaine and establishment of its use as a local anesthetic. All local anesthetics achieve their effect by same mechanism, known as membrane stabilizing effect. They achieve this by blocking the voltage gated sodium channels in neuronal membranes. Figure 1.0 shows the action of cocaine on sodium channels.Nerves carry impulses in the form of action potentials. Conduction of action potential involve a wave of depolarization, followe d by repolarization, to travel along the nerve fiber. Depolarization, movement of membrane potential away from resting potential, is achieved through opening of voltage gated sodium channels and consequent influx of sodium. Local anesthetics reversibly reduce the rate of depolarization and repolarization by blocking these voltage gated sodium channels and eventually, impulse conduction is completely obliterated. Since local anesthetics prevent depolarization of membranes, membrane potential waistcloth near resting levels this is why it is called membrane stabilizing effect.Local anesthetic drugs make the onset of neuronal blockade faster especially in rapidly excitement neurons when they target open sodium channels which is known as state dependent blockade. Local anesthetic action of cocaine is pH dependant. Potency and rate of action tends to decrease with the pH.Inhibition of re-uptake of monoamines dopamine, nor adrenalin, and serotonin.Image above, taken from web, clearly demo nstrates the action of cocaine (shown as yellow block in the figure) on dopamine re-uptake. Figure on the left shows normal process of synaptic transmission from a dopaminergic nerve terminal. Dopamine is secreted by the nerve terminal into synaptic tear and subsequently binds to its receptor on post synaptic membrane. This is followed by its re-uptake via dopamine re-uptake transporter on neuronal membrane back into nerve terminal where it is degraded by MAO (Monoamine oxidase) into monoamines.Figure on right shows similar synapse, in presence of cocaine. Cocaine binds to dopamine re-upta

The Mexican Revolution: An Overview Essay -- Essays Papers

The Mexican Revolution An Overview Throughout its history Mexico has had many revolutions. The most famous perhaps is the Mexican Revolution from 1910-1920. The good deal of Mexico were getting tired of the dictator rule of President Porfino Diaz. People of entirely classes were fighting in the revolution. The middle and upper classes were dissatisfied with the Presidents ways. The unhorse and working class people had many factors such as poor working conditions, inflation, inferior housing, low wages, and deficient social services. Within the classes everyone was fighting men, women, and children all contributed to the fight for freedom from Diaz (Baxman 2). This revolution proved to be the rise and spill of many leaders. In the beginning of his reign, Diaz was almost perfect and had great intentions for Mexico. He created a more st able government and got rid of crime. The quality of life was improved. The government was made stronger by dispatching governors to the various areas of Mexico. The army was also made stronger by professionializing it. The law force readily enforced Diazs laws. Diaz also relied on a group of aristocrats as advisors. As Mexico grew, structurally and economically, foreign films invested in the area. The money from the films helped Diaz to wee-wee highways, railroads, telegraph lines, oil fields, and rejuvenate the mining industry. New industries were also created and in fifty years Mexico had transformed itself from a third world country to the ideal model of a developing country (Summary 3-4). Although these things helped to build up Mexico, they also were the factors in the destruction of Diaz. The people in power became wealthy but the ministration of the population remained impoverishe... ...r lifestyle (Baxman 2-3). Everyone in Mexico was affected by The Mexican Revolution. Whether they were fighting for their freedom or wanted to escape the chaos, they were affected by the rise and fall of pow er. It also affected some people in the United States as Mexican immigrants came into the U.S. People fought for their freedom and after many years of fighting were able to achieve that. Sources Author Unknown. Summary of the Mexican Revolution. Online http//www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Lobby/9980/PAPER.HTML,year unknown. (Accessed 3/12/99). Baxman, Cindy. History of the Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920. Online http//ac.acusd.edu/History/projects/border/page03.html, 1998. (Accessed 3/12/99). Consul General. The Mexican Revolution. Online http//www.mexconnect.com/MEX/capital of Texas/revolution.html, 1996. (Accessed 3/12/99).

Wedding Toasts to the Newlyweds †Perhaps Others Have Said it Best :: Wedding Toasts Roasts Speeches

Wedding Toasts to the Newlyweds Perhaps Others Have Said it BestA health to you,A wealth to you,And the best that feel can give to you.May fortune still be kind to you,And happiness be true to you,And life be long and good to you,Is the toast of all your friends to you.Down the hatch, to a striking matchIrish ToastMarriage A community representing of a master, a mistress,and two slaves - making in all, two.Ambrose BierceTo the newlyweds May for better or worse be far better than worse.There is nothing nobler or more estimable than when two peoplewho see eye to eye keep house as man and wife, confoundingtheir enemies and delighting their friends.Homer, from the OdysseyMay you grow grey-headed on angiotensin-converting enzyme pillow.Armenian toastTwo such as you with such a master speedCannot be parted nor be swept awayFrom bingle another once you are agreedThat life is only life forevermoreTogether wing to wing and oar to oarRobert FrostIts still the same old story,A fight for love and glory,A case of do or dieThe world will always welcome loversAs time goes by.Herman Hupfeld.And their misfortunes as light as the foam.The meeting of two personalities is like the contact oftwo chemical substances if there is any reaction,both are transformed.Carl JungLove does not consist in gazing at each other,but in looking outward in the same direction.Antoine de Saint-ExuperyHeres to marriage, that happy estate that resembles a pair of scissorsSo linked that they cannot be separated,often moving in opposite directions, yet punishinganyone who comes between them.Sydney SmithHeres to the new husbandAnd heres to the new wifeMay they watch loversFor all of life.AnonymousMay their joys be as deep as the ocean.Let us toast the health of the brideLet us toast the health of the groom,Let us toast the person that tiedLet us toast every guest in the room.May we all live to be present at their Golden Wedding.May your love be as endless as your wedding rings.May the saints pro tect youAnd sorrow neglect youAnd risky luck to the oneThat doesnt respect youMay you have many childrenand may they grow mature in tasteand healthy in colorand as sought afteras the contents of the glass.Irish toastMay your wedding days be few and your anniversaries many.May your voyage through life be as happy and as freeAs the dancing waves on the deep blue seaHeres to the groom with bride so fair,And heres to the bride with groom so rare