Interest Group Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Interest Group - Essay Example n the media and popular culture, PETA has contributed directly and indirectly to the enactment of more comprehensive legislations concerned with animal rights. It has also played a central role – directly or indirectly – in the amendment of existing animal rights laws to create better, more holistic legislations that suit the animal rights agenda. The organization was formed in 1980 and has always been dedicated to protecting animals from abuse and suffering, especially at the hands of humans. PETA’s slogan is based on the notion that â€Å"animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment† (Singer 41). This message features prominently in the organization’s website, merchandise, and marketing material (Del Mar 26). The group trains members of the public and policymakers on animal abuse and advocates humane treatment of animals. Its headquarters are in Norfolk, Virginia, but it has international divisions to further its cause abroad. The organization believes that just like humans, animals have rights, and their best interests should always be considered, irrespective of their value to humans. Animals also experience pain and suffering and thrive when they are left to lead their lives in the way that fits their nature and environments. All of PETA’s activities are guided by the belief that all human and nonhuman beings have a right to be free from all forms of harm. According to the group’s mission statement, animal cruelty is one of the problems plaguing the world, and that deserves sufficient attention. The organization believes that everybody has a responsibility to prevent and oppose animal abuse at every opportunity (Singer 34). For 35 years, PETA has worked to create a global society in which people contemplate the needs of, according to Henry Beston, â€Å"the other nations† (Singer 57). In this regard, the group considers itself to be a protector of the rights of individual animals; this informs its belief that animals

Critique two research propsals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critique two research propsals - Essay Example This logical, sequential review enables the reader to follow the historical progress of this line of investigation. In discussing the study by Jonson-Reid, Fuller reports on the results that are relevant to his own study. This previous study indicated that children who were in care for less than three months before being returned to their families had increased risk of substantiated maltreatment recurrence. It is clearly stated that the purpose of this research is to â€Å"examine the factors that might predict short-term maltreatment recurrence following reunification exits from substitute care.† Fuller does this by combining administrative data with detailed information collected from case record reviews. However, no hypothesis is provided other than an assumption that the Jonson-Reid study was correct in reporting the increased risk to children in short-term care. The purpose of the study is reported, though, as providing an assistive guide to caseworkers’ decision-making at the reunification milestone while making their safety assessment. The method for this research is described as being a case-control study. It is described as selecting two groups of participants: one group is selected based on their experience of the outcome of interest – in this case maltreatment recurrence within 60 days of reunification – and the comparison group selected who have not experienced the outcome. This type of study was appropriate for the element being researched because it is particularly useful to examine the effects of a given agent in relation to an occurrence, such as maltreatment following reunification. In addition, case-control studies can match cases with controls by such things as age (children under age 5 have been shown to suffer maltreatment recurrence more often than children ages 5-10), family income levels (low income families have shown greater recurrence than

The Methodology Of Biopsychology: Substance Abuse

The Methodology Of Biopsychology: Substance Abuse To understand addictive behavior, one must understand the brain; the pursuit of this understanding is a challenge with great rewards. Analyzing human behavior requires subjectivity, while the brain contains objective realities; this requires holistic approach for full comprehension. Three general types of methodological issues are prominent in research involving assessment of addiction: (1) the reliability and validity of self-report, collateral, and biological methods of assessing substance use, (2) the variability and episodic course of substance use disorders, and (3) the heterogeneity of individuals with substance use disorders. The history, explanation, pathways and methodologies of addiction are all complex and need to be studied in the scope of biopsychology in order to advance the understanding and treatment of all addictions. History Chemical dependency has been part of every society and each millennium has treated the problems that addiction brings with a methodology unique to the times. Historically, society has attempted to deal with addiction in a certain way (Scheier, 2009). Based in fear of all the unknowns associated with substance abuse, the legal system sent addicts to prison, society in general shunned them and treated them as misfits, and the mental health community confined them to mental health institutions. Today the current modality of treatment for those afflicted with substance abuse is to attempt some way to get them help in whatever area they need it. Basic research on substance abuse has been a public science since the 1930s, funded almost entirely by the U.S. federal government (Scheier). The popular experimentation with drugs in the mid-to-late 1960s raised many questions for which the traditional focus of Addiction Research Center had no answers (Smith, 2010). As a consequence, the field began to diversify and decentralize such that researchers had more pathways from which to choose. Research pathways emerged in behavioral and neuro- or psychopharmacology (Scheier, 2009). Meanwhile, substance abuse also took to the street, bringing researchers into the community. This brought about the emergence of four significant research areas: qualitative social research, epidemiology, treatment research, and research based on self-reports (Scheier). Definition of Addiction There are several definitions of addiction. All addictions have common denominators of being a complex illness characterized by intense, uncontrollable craving, along with compulsive behavior even in light of devastating consequences. (Pinel, 2009). These commonalities also include: symptoms of withdrawal, tolerance, a desire to cut down or stop use/behavior, the inability to stop or decrease usage, loss of employment, estranged families, and social contacts are lost due to the addiction. Addiction has many dimensions that disrupt several if not every aspect of an individuals life. In order to understand what addiction is a definition needs to be cleanly stated. Current neuroscientific research on substance abuse seeks to identify the cellular and molecular mechanisms that mediate the transition from occasional, controlled drug use to the loss of behavioral control over drug seeking and drug-taking that defines chronic addiction (Edwards, 2005). Treatment Modalities Every individual is unique and each person can respond differently to treatment modalities. Professionals that work in the field of addiction and treatment should be trained in current trends in alternative treatments and especially those that have proven effective. In the study by Castel, Rush, Urbanoski and Toneatto, (2006) their results show how complex addictions are and the overlap with mental health issues or other biological disorders. This study was strong in their methodology, but the use of a screening tool might have increased the rate of reported symptoms. Their study did not indicate this to be of significance. Their study has opened the pathway for future research in biopsychology that will illuminate some pivotal points in the biological nature of cross addictions with psychiatric issues and substance abuse indicators. Medication and behavioral therapy, especially when combined, are important elements of an overall therapeutic process that often begins with detoxification, followed by treatment and relapse prevention. Easing withdrawal symptoms can be important in the initiation of treatment; preventing relapse is necessary for maintaining its effects (Fitzgerald McCarty, 2009). Sometimes, as with other chronic conditions, episodes of relapse may require a return to prior treatment components. A continuum of care that includes a holistic treatment program that addresses all aspects of an individuals life, including medical and mental health services and follow-up options can be crucial to a persons success in achieving and maintaining a drug-free lifestyle (Scheier, 2009). Methodologies for Study Research in this field has produced a host of differing theories and models to describe the factors influencing drug use. The enormous amount of literature is impressive, yet overwhelming and often contradictory (Edwards Cobb, 2010). The focus of this bibliography has been to assess the current state of substance abuse with respect to the focus of current research attention, and to identify knowledge gaps. Despite the limitations of the existing material, this view provides a useful platform to deepen and broaden the scope of biopsychological research. This section will describe the studies in general and then will provide synopsis of the common theories that are present throughout each study as well as how each study stands alone. Each individual study will be described and the conclusions presented, this will be brief and to the point. There will be a more detailed discussion that will take into consideration all of the studies presented. The discussion will include the strengths and limitations of current methodologies, biology, similarities and differences with regard to the general theory of addiction and how the addiction pathways are formed as well as possible treatments. Finally, this section will address what needs to be considered in the future and what the studies brought up that needs to be examined in order to better understand and offer some solutions for future studies as well as to offer the reader options for future study and research. The history, explanation, pathways and methodologies of addiction are all complex and need to be studied in the scope of biopsychology in order to advance the understanding and treatment of all addictions. Addiction has been a part of every society, socio-economic class, race, and gender and discriminates against none. There are a variety of theories of addiction as well as treatments; some founded in theory and others founded self-reports. The ability to treat and understand addiction rests in the hands of competent clinicians willing to examine possibilities that are not commonly thought of to be related to addiction. Understanding the biopsychology of addiction will aid in eliminating addiction for future generations to come. Annotated Bibliography Castel, S., Rush, B., Urbanoski, K., Toneatto, T. (2006). Overlap of clusters of psychiatric symptoms among clients of a comprehensive addiction treatment service. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20(1), 28-35. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.20.1.28. This article describes the prevalence and overlap of psychiatric symptoms among 2,784 clients of the outpatient programs at a comprehensive addictions treatment facility. The psychiatric symptoms were assessed by a computer-based questionnaire, and the analysis focused on the overlap of symptom clusters (multimorbidity) and their relation to selected intake variables known to be predictors of treatment outcome. This study will help emphasize the need for a detailed customized treatment approach. Fitzgerald, J., McCarty, D. (2009). Understanding attitudes toward use of medication in substance abuse treatment: A multilevel approach. Psychological Services, 6(1), 74-84. doi:10.1037/a0013420 This study used a treatment unit survey for individual and organizational variables that influence attitudes toward use of naltrexone, methadone, and buprenorphine for the treatment of alcohol and drug disorders. Previous research has not considered both sets of influences simultaneously. Hierarchical linear modeling tested the contribution of individual and organizational variables with data from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network treatment unit and workforce surveys (n = 2,269 staff nested within 247 treatment units). Individual-level variables consistently had more influence on attitudes, but a unique blend of variables existed for each medication. One predictor, support for psychiatric medications, influenced attitudes across all medications. Staff attitudes toward addiction medications varied significantly between treatment units. This study can be a strong research variable to establish the need for psychobiology to be an active participant for addiction treatment. The appropriate use of addiction medications was evidenced by their results. Ducci, F., Goldman, D. (2008). Genetic approaches to addiction: Genes and alcohol. Addiction, 103(9), 1414-1428. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02203.x. This study examines the genetic basis for addiction, alcoholism in particular. The study is a literature review that focused on the genetic basis of alcoholism. The results of the review show that alcoholic genes are acting at the pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic levels. There has been major progress in gene identification in recent years, using intermediate phenotypes such as task-related brain activation, whole genome association studies, gene environment studies, gene effects studies and the genome wide analysis. This study finds that the genetic basis for alcoholism and other addictions is unknown, as further studies are conducted; they are likely to find a link. This study will be used to demonstrate that addiction can be tied to genes and that biopsychology will play an important part in the future of addiction. Edwards, G. (2005). Addiction Biology goes fast forward. Addiction, 100(1), doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01109.x. This article examines the new leadership established at the Society for the Study of Addiction. Included are a variety of new appointments, as well as newly created ones. This article will be used to demonstrate the preparing of the addiction community to prepare for studied in biopsychology and their acceptance and increased understanding of the matter. This article will further show that addiction study is needed and that infrastructure is being created in order to provide for this new understanding of addiction. Edwards, S. Koob G. (2010). Neurobiology of deregulated motivational systems in drug addiction Future Neurology, 5(3), 393-410. doi: 2034674321. This study examines Neurobiological mechanisms for negative reinforcement, which mean that participating in an addiction, in this study drug addiction, and it alleviates a negative emotional state, and this involves changes in the brain and leads to forebrain stress. This stress may contribute to changes in the reinforcement mechanisms in the brain that are associated with addiction. The points of the intersection between the positive and negative motivational areas in the brain may drive addiction and may provide an increased understanding of the neurobiological substrate for therapeutic intervention. This article will be used to further examine that addiction is related to biopsychology and that determining the reinforcement centers in the brain will aid in understanding the behavior associated with addiction. Fitzgerald, J., McCarty, D. (2009). Understanding attitudes toward use of medication in substance abuse treatment: A multilevel approach. Psychological Services, 6(1), 74-84. doi:10.1037/a0013420. This study used a treatment unit survey for individual and organizational variables that influence attitudes toward use of naltrexone, methadone, and buprenorphine for the treatment of alcohol and drug disorders. Previous research has not considered both sets of influences simultaneously. Hierarchical linear modeling tested the contribution of individual and organizational variables with data from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network treatment unit and workforce surveys (n = 2,269 staff nested within 247 treatment units). Individual-level variables consistently had more influence on attitudes, but a unique blend of variables existed for each medication. One predictor, support for psychiatric medications, influenced attitudes across all medications. Staff attitudes toward addiction medications varied significantly between treatment units. This study can be a strong research variable to establish the need for psychobiology to be an active participant for addiction treatment. The appropriate use of addiction medications was evidenced by their results. Fortuna, J. (2010). Sweet preference, sugar addiction and the familial history of alcohol dependence: Shared neural pathways and genes. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 147-51. This study examines the fact that many people who are addicted to drugs and alcohol also have a sweet preference, particularly those with a high sucrose concentration. This study further examines that some people who have a high consumption of sugar rich foods and drinks demonstrates the release of euphoric endorphins and dopamine in the same way that alcohol and drugs do. This study asserts that the neurobiological pathways are the same for sugar and drug addiction. Craving, tolerance, withdrawal and sensitization have been documented in both human and animal studies. This study goes on to show that there is a cross sensitization between sugar addiction and narcotic dependence. This study also demonstrates that the biological children of alcoholic parents, particularly fathers, have a strong sweet preference and that may show up in eating disorders in later life. This study will be used to demonstrate that addiction can be determined through genes and can manifest in different addiction choices. Gillman, A., Kosobud, A., Timberlake, W. (2010). Effects of multiple daily nicotine administrations on pre- and post-nicotine circadian activity episodes in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 124(4), 520-531. doi:10.1037/a0020272. This study has shown that nicotine that is administered with an entertaining activity and that it affected food intake and that throughout the pre and post dose that there was a relation to the increase in the desire for the activity and as well as the nicotine. This study will be used to demonstrate that cross addiction and transference can happen in addiction resulting in the way the brain synthesizes entertainment and addiction. It will be used to demonstrate that there are addiction areas in the brain and that stimulation of one can increase other areas. Haber, J. R., Bucholz, K. K., Jacob, T., Grant, J. D., Scherrer, J. F., Sartor, C. E., Duncan, A. R. Heath, A. (2010, September). Effect of paternal alcohol and drug dependence on offspring conducts disorder: Gene-Environment interplay. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 71 (5); 652-663. ISSN: 1937-1888 This article discussed current research on substance-use disorders and externalizing disorders that frequently present simultaneously, as well as in families across generations. Researchers examined the role of genetic and environmental influences in the relationship between paternal histories of drug dependence or alcohol dependence and offspring conduct disorder using an offspring-of-twins design. The methodology used male twins from the Vietnam Era Twin Registry, their offspring, and mothers of the offspring. The study was difficult to follow, but yielded results that indicated genetic risk associated with both paternal drug-dependence and paternal alcohol-dependence histories predicted offspring conduct-disorder risk, but only risk associated with paternal drug-dependence history was mitigated by having a low-risk environment. This study will be used to demonstrate a significant gene-environment interaction, indicating a strong need for further biopsychological research in this area. Lee, P., Lee, D., Lee, P.. (2010). 2010: U.S. Drug and Alcohol Policy, Looking Back and Moving Forward. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 99-114. This article demonstrates the different perspectives in the usage of the disease model of addiction indicating the influence of The United States drug policy. This article spans various areas of substance abuse research with the focus on new perspectives for future research and changes to the drug policy of the United States. This article will be used to show where the future of biopsychology and substance abuse research is headed. Pinel, J. P. J. (2009). Biopsychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-205-54892-7. This book covers a variety of biopsychology topics in depth as well as anatomy of the brain. This book will be used as a reference to explain the tests used for the determination of behavior and brain connectivity. It will be used to describe the parts of the brain that are related to addiction. It will also be used to explain how addiction works in the brain. Scheier, L. M. (ed) (2009). Multiple paths to partial truths: A history of drug etiology. The Handbook of Drug Etiology: Theory, Methods, and Empirical Findings. American Psychological Association. Washington, DC. ISBN: 978-1-4338-0446-5 This handbook covers the complexities of personality, genetic, environmental, and cultural influences on behavior that are difficult to dissect or treat as independent forces. This volume covers this dynamic field comprehensively. A team of researchers presents dissimilar theoretical perspectives and viewpoints on complex issues ranging from causation to consequences and including a rich discussion of prevention practices and how they influence policy. The editor and contributors show the origins of the field of drug use etiology in clinical work with addicts, detail the history of the field and examine the interaction of epidemiology and etiology. This book will be used to examine substance abuse causations such as peer pressure, community, genetics, race, and age. This will help determine the ways in which drug use etiology links with biopsychology. Smith, D. (2010).The evolution of addiction medicine and its San Francisco roots. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 199-201. This article examines how addiction has evolved from its roots in San Francisco. It examines a variety of problems that are caused from drug addiction and the problems that it causes to society. This article will be used as a historical reference and as a general reference to the history of drugs in general. Addiction research has attempted to keep up with the rapid progression. Sofuoglu, M., Sugarman, D., Carroll, K. (2010). Cognitive function as an emerging treatment target for marijuana addiction. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18(2), 109-119. doi:10.1037/a0019295. Cannabis is the most widely used illicit substance in the world, and demand for effective treatment is increasing. However, abstinence rates following behavioral therapies have been modest, and there are no effective pharmacotherapies for the treatment of cannabis addiction. We propose a novel research agenda and a potential treatment strategy, based on observations that both acute and chronic exposure to cannabis are associated with dose-related cognitive impairments, most consistently in attention, working memory, verbal learning, and memory functions. These impairments are not completely reversible upon cessation of marijuana use, and moreover may interfere with the treatment of marijuana addiction. Therefore, targeting cognitive impairment associated with chronic marijuana use may be a promising novel strategy for the treatment of marijuana addiction. Preclinical studies suggest that medications enhancing the cholinergic transmission may attenuate cannabis-induced cognitive impai rments, but these cognitive enhancing medications have not been examined in controlled human studies. Preliminary evidence from individuals addicted to other drugs suggests that computerized cognitive rehabilitation may also have utility to improve cognitive function in marijuana users. Future clinical studies optimally designed to measure cognitive function as well as drug use behavior would be needed to test the efficacy of these treatments for marijuana addiction.

Music Censorship Essay -- social issues

Music Censorship Healthy debates have been caused by today's music. Generally, foul language has rapidly increased within modern popular song lyrics, especially among rap and heavy metal artists' songs. An increase in explicit violence and misogyny in popular music lyrics has been recorded. These lyrics have been judged to be inspirations for violent, suicidal, and criminal acts. For example, Mr. Raymond Kuntz referred to his son's incident. ''When his wife went to wake their son for school, they found him dead of a gunshot wound, still wearing his headphones with Marilyn Manson's Anti-Christ Superstar CD still in the player. The boy's favorite song was ''The Reflecting God (Nina Crowley, ''Senate Hearings on Music, Newsgroup at page 2, November 15, 1997).'' However, the artists and producers defend the musical lyrics, and claim that these acts come purely from self-inspiration, not extrinsic influence such as their music. If this were true, then why would 59 % of substance abusers name heavy metal a s their favorite type of music? ( Javier Martin, ''Separating Fact from Fiction: Rock Music and Violence'' November 28, 1997, page 2). Most teenagers listen to popular music, and learn from the words of the artists. Therefore, if an artist sets an example of being ''cool'' and performing harmful acts, a listener may reproduce his learned actions. ''Rappers call on their fans to kill, dismember, and smash the heads of teachers, and dumb cops (Peter Viles, ''Bulgaria's racist rap.'' World Press Review June 1996: Page 41).'' The entire world is affected by this reoccurring theme, since adolescents are influenced by music on a daily basis. Although almost everyone is directly affected, some people do not admit to profane music having a personal influence. ''People perceive media content to have greater impact on others than on themselves.'' (Douglas M. McLeod, ''Support for Censorship of Violent and Misogynic Rap Lyrics.'' Communication Research, April 1997: page 153). Naturally, the ma jority of youth is heavily influenced by music, and needs to be protected from the harm of obscene artists. Due to its negative affects upon society, I believe the government should further restrict music that has been specified as dangerous to the well being of the listeners. Contrary to many assumptions, modern youth is not protected enough from harmful music, even though ther... ... new laws to help harmful media reach younger listeners and viewers. New laws would essentially create a better future for society's youth. They would help prevent children from learning violent acts through example, and keep innocent people from being offended by foul language. The lyrical content of modern music has had a noticeable affect on the actions of all society. Few limitations have been applied to the availability of these horrid songs, so the ears of young children are still exposed to them. These children do not realize the affect it has upon them. ''People perceive media content to have a greater impact on others than on themselves (McLeod 1).'' Because the nation's youth is being subjected to these types of songs, children and teenagers are committing crimes, drinking alcohol, using drugs, and forming racist or sexist opinions. These actions are learned actions, and are based upon the words written for obscene music. Our country needs to evaluate this music carefully, which can protect our youth from further harm. ''Understanding the nature and extent of the influence of music violence may well be the first step for ensuring a more civil society (Crowley 2).''

Objective And Impressionistic Description

Objective and Impressionistic DescriptionThere are two ways to describe depending on the kind of result or response that you like to elicit from the reader. Objective description is the enumeration of details in a matter-of-fact way to simply show the appearance or condition of a person, place,or thing. This kind of description is commonly used when writing journalistic,reports,encyclopedia entries,or scientific observations. Impressionistic description is used when you like to imply certain feelings, or set a mood, or build an atmosphere in what is described. The use of highly connotative words and abstraction usually results in more impressionistic descriptions. This kind of description is often found in literary works and feature articles.Consider this objective description of an eagle:An eagle is any of the hawk family, Accipitridae. Eagles have hooked beaks,curved claws (called talons), keen eyesight, powerful wings, strong bodies, and feathered legs. Land eagles build their nes ts high up in trees,while sea eagles (or ernes) usually build theirs on the rocky ledges of cliffs. Eagles feed on small mammals,birds,fish, and carreon.Now take a look at this impressionistic description of â€Å"The Eagle† by Alfred Lord Tennyson: He clasps the crag with crooked hands; Close to the sun in lonely lands. Ringed with the azure world, he stands.The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; He watches from his mountain walls, And like a thunderbolt, he falls.Objective and Impressionistic DescriptionThere are two ways to describe depending on the kind of result or response that you like to elicit from the reader. Objective description is the enumeration of details in a matter-of-fact way to simply show the appearance or condition of a person, place,or thing. This kind of description is commonly used when writing journalistic,reports,encyclopedia entries,or scientific observations. Impressionistic description is used when you like  to imply certain feelings, or set a moo d, or build an atmosphere in what is described. The use of highly connotative words and abstraction usually results in more impressionistic descriptions. This kind of description is often found in literary works and feature articles.Consider this objective description of an eagle:An eagle is any of the hawk family, Accipitridae. Eagles have hooked beaks,curved claws (called talons), keen eyesight, powerful wings, strong bodies, and feathered legs. Land eagles build their nests high up in trees,while sea eagles (or ernes) usually build theirs on the rocky ledges of cliffs. Eagles feed on small mammals,birds,fish, and carreon.Now take a look at this impressionistic description of â€Å"The Eagle† by Alfred Lord Tennyson: He clasps the crag with crooked hands; Close to the sun in lonely lands. Ringed with the azure world, he stands.The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; He watches from his mountain walls, And like a thunderbolt, he falls.Objective and Impressionistic DescriptionTh ere are two ways to describe depending on the kind of result or response that you like to elicit from the reader. Objective description is the enumeration of details in a matter-of-fact way to simply show the appearance or condition of a person, place,or thing. This kind of description is commonly used when writing journalistic,reports,encyclopedia entries,or scientific observations. Impressionistic description is used when you like to imply certain feelings, or set a mood, or build an atmosphere in what is described. The use of highly connotative words and abstraction usually results in more impressionistic descriptions. This kind of description is often found in literary works and feature articles.Consider this objective description of an eagle:An eagle is any of the hawk family,Accipitridae. Eagles have hooked  beaks,curved claws (called talons), keen eyesight, powerful wings, strong bodies, and feathered legs. Land eagles build their nests high up in trees,while sea eagles (or ernes) usually build theirs on the rocky ledges of cliffs. Eagles feed on small mammals,birds,fish, and carreon.Now take a look at this impressionistic description of â€Å"The Eagle† by Alfred Lord Tennyson: He clasps the crag with crooked hands; Close to the sun in lonely lands. Ringed with the azure world, he stands.The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; He watches from his mountain walls, And like a thunderbolt, he falls.

Diabetes and Nutrition

Diabetes mellitus is a continual disorder of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in which blood levels of glucose and lipids are elevated. This abnormal metabolism results from a relative lack of insulin, either too little insulin is secreted or the insulin that is secreted is not effective. In addition, diabetes is associated with chronic systemic complications, which, over time, can affect the retina, kidneys, nerves, and cardiovascular system. The most common classifications of diabetes mellitus include type I, or insulin-dependent, diabetes mellitus (IDDM); type II, non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM); and gestational diabetes (GD).How it is DevelopedThe problems of diabetes originate in an organ located behind the stomach about the length of a human hand called the pancreas. The pancreas is necessary for both digesting food and regulating energy. It is the regulation of energy for the body that is important in the development of diabetes. The pancreas produces hormones that metabolize food. These hormones regulate the use of glucose, a simple sugar, which is used for most of the activities in our bodies. The pancreas regulates energy in a variety of behaviors in which humans engage such as exercise and movement, responding to trauma and stress, and infections.The pancreas emits three different types of hormones. Insulin is the first hormone that is produced when glucose rises in the blood. Insulin usually rises after eating a meal, and excess glucose that is not used is stimulated by insulin to be stored in muscles and fat cells so that energy can be used later. The liver also stores excess glucose in the form of a carbohydrate called glycogen. The second type of pancreatic hormone is glucagon. Glucagon breaks down glycogen stored in the liver so that it can be used as energy when blood glucose supplies are down. The third type of pancreatic hormone is called somatostatin, thought to be important in regulating both insulin and glucagon.When diabe tes develops, this balanced control system does not operate properly. The glucose in the bloodstream increases, and the cells are not able to utilize it. The individual develops hyperglycemia (excess glucose in the blood). This can be detected by measuring the glucose in the blood from a blood sample, or if the glucose is elevated enough, it can be detected in the urine as spillover. This sort of situation occurs when there is not enough insulin to permit the cells to utilize the glucose, or there is resistance most likely at the cellular level to the presence of insulin. Both cases produce diabetes.Symptoms of DiabetesSome of the symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus are increased thirst, increased urination, weight loss even though the individual is eating more, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting, skin infections, vaginitis, blurred vision, bladder infections, and impotence in men and cessation of menses in women.One severe symptom of diabetes is diabetic ketoacidosis. This symptom sometimes p roduces slightly sweet-smelling breath that is caused by acetone, a metabolic byproduct, when the body is forced to burn fatty acids rather than glucose. This process becomes more and more toxic to the body as it continues; the individual may develop diabetic coma and die. Ketoacidosis occurs when individuals are either not getting enough insulin or the insulin is not adequate to allow cells of the body to utilize the glucose.Effects of DiabetesDiabetes has two types of long-term effects. One type is associated with blood vessel involvement. Damage to the large vessels puts the diabetic at greater risk of stroke, heart attack, and gangrene of the feet. When small blood vessels are damaged, eyes, kidneys, and nerves become damaged. The other long-term effect is nerve damage usually in the feet, but also occasionally in the hands. This nerve damage is called diabetic neuropathy. This damage may cause a painful burning sensation with loss of sensation over time, making the body part mo re subject to injury and infection. Foot ulcers and gangrene can develop, with further damage in the extremities. In men, diabetic neuropathy may cause erectile impotence.Nutrition for DiabetesConsultation with a dietitian familiar with children and with type 2 diabetes is important for all patients. The dietitian should assess the nutritional status and practices of the patient and then counsel them to provide a meal plan which, at least initially, does not deviate in a major way from their usual eating practices. Changes made gradually, through subsequent appointments and interviews, frequently achieve compliance more successfully than does radical and rapid change.Individuals providing counseling must be clear about the differences in the management of patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Because obesity is a typical finding in type 2 diabetes and caloric restriction results in improved glycemic control and insulin sensitivity, modest caloric restriction and weight loss or m aintenance are important goals: so is correction of the dyslipidemia, which frequently accompanies the metabolic syndrome or IRS.In general, calories from dietary fat should not exceed 30% of energy intake, and calories from saturated fat should not exceed 10%. An effort is also made to limit cholesterol in the diet to

Ancient Roman Water Systems

Ancient Roman Water Systems Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow, a Brandeis classicist who has studied the Roman latrine, says, There are no ancient sources where you can really learn about daily life[...] You have to come upon information almost by chance. That means its hard to answer all the questions or to say with any confidence that this bit of information about the bathroom habits of the Roman Empire applies to the Republic as well. With that caution, here is some of what we think we know about the water system of ancient Rome. Roman Aqueducts The Romans are renowned for engineering marvels, among which is the aqueduct that carried water for many miles in order to provide a crowded urban population with relatively safe, potable water, as well as less essential but very Roman aquatic uses. Rome had nine aqueducts by the time of the engineer Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. 35–105), appointed curator aquarum in 97, our main ancient source for the water supply. The first of these was built in the fourth century B.C. and the last in the first century A.D. Aqueducts were built because the springs, wells, and Tiber River were no longer providing the safe water that was needed for the swelling urban population. Aqueducts Listed by Frontinus: In 312 B.C., the Appia Aqueduct was built 16,445 meters long.Next was the Anio Verus, built between 272-269, and 63,705 meters.Next was the Marcia, built between 144-140 and 91,424 meters.The next aqueduct was the Tepula, built in 125, and 17,745 meters.The Julia was built in 33 B.C. at 22,854 meters.The Virgo was built in 19 B.C., at 20,697 meters.The next aqueduct is the Alsientina, whose date is unknown. Its length is 32,848.The last two aqueducts were built between 38 and 52 A.D. Claudia was 68,751 meters.The Anio Novus was 86,964 meters. The Drinking Water Supply Water did not go to all residents of Rome. Only the rich had private service and the rich were as likely to divert and hence, steal, the water from the aqueducts as anyone. Water in residences only reached the lowest floors. Most Romans got their water from a constantly running public fountain. Baths and Latrines Aqueducts also supplied water to public latrines and baths. Latrines served 12-60 people at once with no dividers for privacy or toilet paper only a sponge on a stick in the water to pass around. Fortunately, water ran through the latrines constantly. Some latrines were elaborate and may have been amusing. Baths were more clearly a form of entertainment as well as hygiene. Sewers and The Cloaca Maxima When you live on the 6th floor of a walk-up with no latrine for blocks, the chances are youll use a chamber pot. What do you do with its content? That was the question that faced many an insula dweller in Rome, and many answered in the most obvious way. They dumped the pot out the window onto any stray passerby. Laws were written to deal with this, but it still went on. The preferred act was to dump solids into sewers and urine into vats where it was eagerly collected and even bought by fullers who needed the ammonia in their toga cleaning business. The main sewer of Rome was the Cloaca Maxima. It emptied into the Tiber River. It was probably built by one of the Etruscan kings of Rome to drain the marshes in the valleys between the hills. Sources By Donna Desrochers,  Classicist digs deep for truth about latrines, hygiene habits of ancient Romans, Roger D. Hansen, Water and Wastewater Systems in Imperial Rome Lanciani, Rodolfo, The Ruins of Ancient Rome. Benjamin Blom, New York.